Psalm 110 is a short psalm, and its verses are obscure - and as a rule, when verses are obscure, interpretations multiply. We will examine here several possibilities for understanding what the psalm refers to: some expounded it as referring to Avraham Avinu in his war against the four kings; some explained it as referring to David HaMelech when he was fleeing from Shaul; some explained it as referring to David at the beginning of his reign during the Philistine war; and the Malbim sets the entire psalm upon the war against Rabbah of the Ammonites.
לְדָוִד מִזְמוֹר נְאֻם ה' לַאדֹנִי שֵׁב לִימִינִי עַד אָשִׁית אֹיְבֶיךָ הֲדֹם לְרַגְלֶיךָ׃ - A psalm of David: The declaration of Hashem to my master: "Sit at My right hand, until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet."
Before the explanation, a grammatical note worth keeping in mind. Notice that we pronounce it "Ladoni" (or "Ladonai") and not "La'adoni". The rule is: when a word like "adoni", or the Name of Hashem, is preceded by prefix letters, they are divided into two categories - the letters of MoSheH (Mem, Shin, Heh) and the letters of KaLaV (Kaf, Lamed, Bet, Vav). The letters of MoSheH are: Me'adoni, She'adoni, Ha'adoni. The letters of KaLaV are: Vadoni, Kadoni, Ladoni, Badoni. The mnemonic to remember: Moshe brings out of Egypt, while Kalev brings into the Land - Yehoshua and Kalev were the ones who inherited the Land. That is to say, with the letters of MoSheH, I bring out the aleph from the mouth and pronounce it, whereas with the letters of KaLaV, the aleph is swallowed and not pronounced at all: Ladonai, Badonai, Vadonai.
This does not change the meaning, yet we are meticulous to pronounce it correctly. In Torah reading and prayer this is very common: "all who hope in Hashem (Ladonai)" - and not "La'adonai". You will hear how many people err in this. So too here: "Of David, a psalm: The declaration of Hashem to my master (Ladoni): Sit at My right hand."
Rashi cites that our Sages expounded the psalm as referring to Avraham Avinu, and says: "And I will explain it according to their words." Avraham Avinu was called "my master" (adoni) by the people of his generation - "Hear us, my lord" (shema'enu adoni), "If you will, my lord, hear me." Thus, "The declaration of Hashem to my master" means that the Holy One, blessed be He, is speaking to Avraham, who is a master to the people of his generation.
"Sit at My right hand" - sitting (yeshivah) here means lingering or waiting, as in "and we dwelt (vaneishev) in the wilderness for many days," which does not mean we were sitting down rather than standing, but that we stayed there; and similarly, "and you dwelt (vateshvu) in Kadesh." The right hand symbolizes salvation. Thus, the Holy One, blessed be He, says to Avraham: Wait and anticipate the salvation of My right hand; salvation will surely come.
"Until I make your enemies a footstool for your feet" - until I place your enemies, namely Amraphel and his allies whom Avraham fought, as a footstool for your feet. A footstool (hadom) is the stool upon which a person sitting on his chair rests his feet - meaning, you will trample them.
Rashi brings alongside this (though this does not appear in all printings) an additional explanation, and other commentators follow this line as well: that the psalm refers to David. "The declaration of Hashem to my master (ladoni)" - David sings and recounts the period in which he was being pursued by his master, Shaul. The letter lamed here functions in place of "al" (concerning), as in "And Pharaoh will say of the Children of Israel (livnei Yisrael)" - meaning concerning the Children of Israel, and as in "And the men of the place asked about his wife (le'ishto)" - meaning concerning his wife. Thus: this psalm was said concerning my master, concerning Shaul who pursues me. And then the Holy One, blessed be He, says to him: "Sit at My right hand" - wait and be patient, salvation will surely come, "His right hand has delivered him," I will yet save you.
The Radak also cites the exposition of Chazal that the psalm refers to Avraham Avinu when he went out to fight the four kings. There it says regarding Malki-tzedek, "and he was a priest to the Most High God" - the priesthood was meant to descend from him, but he erred by placing Avraham first in his blessing: "Blessed be Avram to the Most High God," and only afterward, "and blessed be the Most High God, Maker of heaven and earth." This is not the proper way; first and foremost one blesses the Most High God. Therefore, the Holy One, blessed be He, removed the priesthood from him and gave it to Avraham - "You are a priest forever, according to the matter of Malki-tzedek (al divrati Malki-tzedek)," because of the word spoken by Malki-tzedek (and we will elaborate on this later). This does not mean that Avraham himself was a kohen, but that the kohanim would come from his descendants, and not from the descendants of Malki-tzedek.
However, the Radak also addresses the plain interpretation that the psalm was spoken about David HaMelech. According to him, "LeDavid" does not mean that David himself sang it, but rather that one of the poets recited it about David - similar to "ladoni" as we explained, where the prefix lamed means "concerning."
The Ibn Ezra cites, and the Radak likewise mentions, that this psalm was composed at the beginning of David's reign. When the Philistines heard that David had been anointed king, they marched up to battle against him, and the Holy One, blessed be He, promised him that he would prevail over them. This took place at Baal Perazim in the Valley of Rephaim, and David uttered this psalm in thanksgiving to Hashem Who helped him triumph. "The word of Hashem to my master" - Hashem said to me, to David: "Sit at My right hand" - wait there, as it says, "for then Hashem has gone out before you": only when you hear the sound of marching in the tops of the baka trees, then stir yourself and go out to battle. This was a test for David, similar to the test of Shaul, who was commanded to wait seven days, and at the very last moment offered the sacrifice and failed. David too was required to wait until the Divine command arrived, and even though his life was in mortal danger, he did not launch an attack until Hashem told him to do so. And this is the promise: My right hand will assist you, and I will not rest until "I make your enemies a footstool for your feet."
The Metzudat David cites a similar approach from Chazal: When Avraham defeated Amraphel and the kings, the nations asked Eliezer, Avraham's servant, "How is it possible that you were so few?" "He armed his disciples" - 318, which is the numerical value of Eliezer, and according to one opinion, it was only Avraham and Eliezer alone. In a war that historians might define as the first world war in history, Avraham came with a single man, or with 318 - and with such a force, one cannot win a battle! Eliezer answered them: "The word of Hashem to my master" - Hashem said to Avraham: Sit securely awaiting the salvation of My right hand; My right hand will save you. Thus, according to this approach, the psalm is Eliezer's account of the miracle performed for Avraham, and of the promise that the Holy One, blessed be He, gave him.
The Malbim explains that the psalm speaks of a different war - the war David waged against Rabbah of the Ammonites. There it is recounted that David did not personally go out to battle, but instead sent Yoav and the army officers, which was inappropriate. Whoever has studied the episode of Batsheva recalls the Malbim's explanation there, that this was the very reason the test of Batsheva transpired: because he ought to have gone out to battle and did not, sending others instead, he saw what he saw and came to sin. And many thought that following that downfall, David would be deposed from the monarchy.
Yoav captured the City of Waters, also known as the royal city. It was called the City of Waters because a river flowed through that area, surrounding the city and supplying it with water. Such a city is difficult to conquer, for in those days it was customary to dig moats around the city in addition to fortifications, making it harder to capture. The kings of Ammon resided there, and the city was called Rabbath of the Children of Ammon - the great metropolis of Ammon. When they reached the stage of final conquest, they told David: Come and conquer the city yourself, so that it may be named after you and the triumph will be credited to you. David went and conquered it, and afterward put the people through "iron cutting tools" and the brick kiln - punishing them for having murdered his family, his brothers and his father, whom he had sent to them to be saved from Shaul, but whom they had killed, and now he took retribution from them.
Regarding this, the psalmist says, "The word of Hashem to my master": David did not need to leave Jerusalem for the war, for Hashem said to him, "Sit at My right hand." David's throne is the throne of Hashem, as it is written, "And Shlomo sat on the throne of Hashem as king." As it were, the Holy One, blessed be He, sits upon the throne of leadership to guide Israel with special Providence like a king leading his people, and David sits upon the royal throne at His right - like an exalted king who seats the crown prince at his right hand. And one who sits upon a throne needs a footstool for his feet; concerning this, the Holy One, blessed be He, tells him: I will make your enemies a footstool for your feet. You sit at My right hand, and I will cast down the enemies before you.
מַטֵּה עֻזְּךָ יִשְׁלַח ה' מִצִּיּוֹן רְדֵה בְּקֶרֶב אֹיְבֶיךָ׃ - The staff of your strength Hashem will send forth from Zion; rule in the midst of your enemies.
Mateh (staff) means a support, as in "the staff of bread" (mateh lechem) - for we lean and depend upon bread. According to the approach that the psalm refers to Avraham: When you return from battle, your men will be weary and exhausted, and the Holy One, blessed be He, will send you sustenance through Malki-Tzedek, king of Shalem, who brought out bread and wine. "Hashem will send forth from Zion" - for Zion is Jerusalem, and Malki-Tzedek was the king of Shalem, and Shalem is Jerusalem. Therefore, "rule in the midst of your enemies" - go out confidently to battle your enemies, for Hashem will surely send your sustenance through Malki-Tzedek.
According to the explanation that the psalm refers to David, Rashi explains: "The staff of your strength" refers to the exceptional good deeds in your hand, which serve as the support upon which you lean, and the Holy One, blessed be He, will dispatch them for you from Zion - you are destined to reign in Zion. Rashi also brings another explanation: mateh refers to the "staff of rulers," the royal scepter held by the king with which he governs and rules, just as Moshe Rabbeinu held a staff with which he performed wonders. You will yet reign in Zion and possess a staff of strength - "rule in the midst of your enemies," an expression of dominion, you shall rule over them.
The Radak explains that at that time, at the beginning of his reign, David conquered Zion, and Scripture tells him: The staff and support with which you will be fortified is this very place, for from Zion the Holy One, blessed be He, as it were, reveals Himself and assists you. "In the midst of your enemies" - not only in the Philistine cities adjacent to the Land of Israel, but in the very heart of their own land. Ruling over bordering cities is not a great feat of valor, but reaching into the interior of their territory and ruling there - that is true power.
And the Malbim, according to his approach regarding the war of Rabbah of the Ammonites: You will not go out to the war yourself; rather, Hashem will send forth from Zion "the staff of your strength" - the fighting tribes (matot), your military camps, which are the rod that will wage the battle on your behalf. Through them you will rule in the midst of your enemies, and you need not go out to battle in person.
עַמְּךָ נְדָבֹת בְּיוֹם חֵילֶךָ בְּהַדְרֵי קֹדֶשׁ מֵרֶחֶם מִשְׁחָר לְךָ טַל יַלְדֻתֶיךָ׃ - Your people offer themselves willingly on the day of your campaign, in majestic holiness; from the womb of the dawn, yours is the dew of your youth.
Rashi interprets this as referring to Avraham: "Your people volunteer on the day of your campaign" - on the day you gather an army to pursue them, your people and your allies will willingly volunteer to join you. "He armed his disciples, born in his house" - he took only these men, while Aner, Eshkol, and Mamre came and volunteered of their own accord to assist him.
"In the splendors of holiness, from the womb of the dawn" - this will come to you in the merit of the majestic holiness that was within you from your mother's womb. Yet it is difficult to say that he literally possessed majestic holiness from his mother's womb, since Chazal teach that when his mother, Amatlai bat Karnevo, conceived him, she was a niddah - and concerning this it is said, "Who can bring a pure thing out of an impure? Not one," for the Holy One, blessed be He, brought forth the pure, Avraham, from the impure, from Terach who was steeped in idolatry (as explained elsewhere according to the doctrine of gilgulim, and the holy Ari offers a wondrous explanation of this, which is beyond our scope here). Rather, the meaning is as Rashi immediately adds: that he recognized his Creator at three years old - that is, from a very tender age, sparks of holiness already shone within you. As noted previously, some sources state that he recognized his Creator at forty, others say at thirty-seven, and the like; these are distinct levels of attainment. At age three he attained recognition of his Creator, and he progressively deepened his grasp until he reached complete recognition at forty.
And what is the meaning of "mishchar"? We recite this in the Selichot prayers, yet we do not always know its meaning. Rashi explains: from the time you dropped from the womb. What is the connection between "shachar" and dropping or falling? The Gemara says, "One may drop fruits through a skylight on Yom Tov" (meshirin peirot), and some read "meshilin", while others read "mashcharin". The Gemara notes that all these textual variants are correct and do not contradict one another - for one may speak of shedding fruit, dropping fruit, or casting it down, and all three expressions connote dropping and letting fall. Thus, "from the womb of the mishchar" means from the moment you dropped from the womb, from when you were born.
"Yours is the dew of your youth" - the upright ways you practiced in your youth will be credited to you, and this will be a source of pleasantness for you, like soothing dew. There is always a contrast between dew and rain: "My teaching shall drop like rain" suggests an intense pouring down, whereas "My speech shall distill like dew" indicates soft speech, like dew settling gently. In other words, the upright paths in which you walked in your youth will bring you pleasantness and divine assistance from the Holy One, blessed be He, accompanying you like dew.
And according to the interpretation that the psalm refers to David, Rashi explains: "Your people volunteer on the day of your campaign" - the people of Israel will volunteer to assist you on the day you perform valiantly, just as we find that men from every tribe began gathering to David. When he went to Ziklag, warriors from Menashe defected to him, and wherever he went people rallied to him, until they accepted him in full monarchy. For it was not simple for David to establish his reign - Shaul pursued him, he had many internal enemies, and he reigned seven years in Chevron before reigning in Jerusalem; the kingdom took shape and grew step by step.
The Radak explains, according to his approach that the psalm speaks of Avraham during the War of the Four Kings: "Your people volunteer on the day of your campaign" - on the day you gathered your forces to fight them, your people came willingly, namely Aner, Eshkol, and Mamre. "In majestic holiness" - in Jerusalem, which is termed the majesty of holiness, and in Zechariah is called holy land. "Hadar" denotes beauty and splendor - "Fair in its beauty, the joy of the whole earth," for Jerusalem is praised for its splendor. "From the womb of the dawn, yours is the dew of your youth" - the day you emerged from the womb and were born, that very dawn belonged to you. Radak interprets "mishchar" literally as dawn, unlike Rashi who interprets it as dropping or falling: from the womb, from the dawn of your youth, from a tender age, that dew that fell when you were born accompanies you - from the womb you were destined for sovereignty, and dew of blessing was yours at the dawn of your birth.
The Malbim explains, consistent with his view that the psalm speaks of David: The people will volunteer to enlist in the army on the day of your campaign, on the day you wage war against Rabbah of the Ammonites. And what will aid you? "The dew of your youth" - the good deeds you performed in your youth will serve like dew to cause your glory to blossom and flourish. This dew emerged "in majestic holiness" - for in his youth David was anointed with holy anointing oil by Shmuel. As Scripture says, "Like precious oil upon the head, running down upon the beard... like the dew of Chermon descending upon the mountains of Tzion" - where the anointing oil is likewise linked with dew.
And when does dew appear? Anyone who rises early in the morning and sees the roof of a car wet without rain understands this - some have never had the chance to see it, because by the time they wake up the roof is already dry, but those who rise at three or four in the morning witness the heavy moisture. Dew forms before the crack of dawn, at the first break of day, so that the dawn figuratively gives birth to the dew. Therefore, Scripture poetically describes the dew as coming "from the womb of the dawn" - from the dawn's womb, as if dawn brought it forth. The lesson: the dew of David's youth began when the dawn began, when his light began to break forth, "like the morning light when the sun rises," symbolizing the emergence of kingship. Just as dawn unfolds gradually, little by little, so David's monarchy arose little by little, and then the dew of his youth flourished in majestic holiness - through the holy anointing oil with which he was anointed. The verse assures him: this merit will stand by you now as well, in your battle against Rabbah of the Ammonites.
The sefer Tehillot Maharitz cites Chazal: Avraham Avinu was fearful, saying, "Could it be that I bear guilt for having worshiped idols all those years?" For until the age at which he recognized his Creator - whether at age three or at forty - he had worshiped idols, and he feared lest this bring about his downfall, Heaven forbid. The Holy One, blessed be He, said to him: "Yours is the dew of your youth" - just as this dew evaporates, so your sins evaporate. And just as the dew upon the roof of a car evaporates and vanishes in the early morning hours, so your sins vanish. Moreover, just as dew is a sign of blessing to the world, so too you are a sign of blessing to the world.
The Tehillot Maharit wonders: What blessing is there to the world in the fact that Avraham was an idolater? The Holy One, blessed is He, comes to reassure him and says to him: What are you afraid of, the period of idol worship in your youth? It is dew for the world! Yet ostensibly, would it not have been a far greater blessing had Avraham been a tzaddik from his youth?
Listen to a wonderful explanation. Chazal say: In the place where penitents (baalei teshuvah) stand, completely righteous people (tzaddikim gemurim) cannot stand. And why is there an advantage to the baal teshuvah? It has already been explained in the past that this cannot mean a baal teshuvah who committed severe sins, for the Chovot HaLevavot says that one who never committed any sin is certainly of a higher level. And we said this can be applied to someone who repented only over sinful thoughts - he is greater than a complete tzaddik; but if he committed an actual transgression in practice, certainly a tzaddik who never transgressed is superior to him. The Chovot HaLevavot distinguishes between categories of transgressions: if he committed a minor sin, such as neglecting a positive mitzvah, he is indeed on a higher level than the tzaddik; but if he committed severe transgressions punishable by karet, stoning, or court-mandated death penalties, certainly the tzaddik is superior to him.
Rather, he offers another dimension to the superiority of the baal teshuvah: When a person stands up to offer reproof and rebuke his generation, the masses at the city gate speak against him, saying: "It is easy for you to preach mussar; you have always walked on the good path." When a righteous person who grew up in a holy environment, groomed from youth to become the gadol hador (greatest Torah sage of the generation), comes and rebukes people steeped in sin, they immediately say to him: "Sir, in the environment where you grew up, you never knew, you never experienced, you never heard, and you never tasted. Had you been where we were, you would speak very differently!" They have a claim against him.
This was already explained regarding Sefer Kohelet: "I, Kohelet, was king..." - why the entire inventory of male and female singers, human pleasures, treasures of kings, and palaces? Because if someone tells you, "The end of the matter, all having been heard: fear God and keep His commandments, for this is the whole of man," you might say: What does he know of life? What did he taste? What did he experience? Forget it, he is just telling me to sit and learn Torah and cling to Hashem. Therefore, Shlomo says: Not at all! I am a man of the world; I knew and tasted it all. Did you have a thousand wives? I had them. Did you have palaces? Did you rule over the entire world? I ruled over the entire world - and I tell you that it is all vanity: "Vanity of vanities, all is vanity." When words come from someone who knows, they sound entirely different. A single baal teshuvah can accomplish work that thousands of others cannot do, because he comes as someone who knows; he comes from there, from among them, and rebukes them. This is "in the place where baalei teshuvah stand" - to rebuke the people - "completely righteous people cannot stand," for to the complete tzaddik they will say: Well, from your sheltered place, what do you know, and what have you tasted?
According to this, how wonderful this is! What did Avraham Avinu teach his generation? To abandon idolatry and disconnect from all vanity. And who can speak about that? One who was there and emerged from there. And that is what the Holy One, blessed is He, told him: That very idolatry will be for you like dew - "yours is the dew of your youth" - because through its power you will exert influence; through its power you will be able to show them and prove to them that everything is vanity: Look, I abandoned the false gods and chose the God of truth, for Hashem is God. With this power, he succeeded in turning many back from iniquity and bringing them beneath the wings of the Shechinah.
We have seen three approaches to interpreting this psalm: regarding Avraham Avinu in the War of the Four Kings; regarding Dovid HaMelech when he was pursued by Shaul or at the beginning of his reign in the war against the Pelishtim; and according to the Malbim - regarding the war of Rabbah of the Ammonites, in which Dovid sat in Yerushalayim and sent the staffs of his army. The common message is one: "Sit at My right" - wait for the salvation of Hashem, for salvation comes in its proper time, little by little, like the dawn that breaks and brings forth the dew. "The staff of your strength" refers to good deeds and the support from Tzion; "Your people offer themselves willingly" refers to the volunteers who accompany the person of merit on the day of his campaign; and "the dew of your youth" refers to upright conduct and the anointing oil of youth. Finally, we learned a great principle: even a person's past, which he fears, can be transformed into dew of blessing - for specifically one who was there and emerged from there can rebuke, influence, and bring many back beneath the wings of the Shechinah.